How Adequate Is Mill’s Conception of Happiness How Good...

How adequate is Mill’s conception of happiness? How good are his arguments to show that â€Å"higher† pleasures are intrinsically more desirable than â€Å"lower† ones? Is this distinction consistent with the thesis that pleasure is the only thing of value? In â€Å"Utilitarianism† Mill argues that ‘higher’ pleasures are intrinsically more valuable than ‘lower’ pleasures, citing the invariable preference of men who have access to both available (pp.140). I am inclined to disagree, particularly with regards to his assertion that ‘higher’ pleasures have such a â€Å"superiority of quality†(pp.139), so as to render any quantity of ‘lower’ pleasures â€Å"in comparison, of small account†- this non-cardinal view of pleasure raises many discontinuities. This is†¦show more content†¦In Mill’s favour is the seemingly fundamental difference between human and animal pleasures, and ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ pleasures as an extension of this. He draws our attention to this with his assertion that we would prefer to be a â€Å"human being unsatisfied than a pig satisfied† (pp.140). This seems similar to earlier comparisons, but there is an important distinction. Mill highlights that anyone who doesn’t believe there are intrinsically more desirable higher pleasures is forced to concede it would be better to live as a beast. ‘Higher’ pleasures are an embodiment of our higher faculties and I believe that our enjoyment of these is an important marker of what makes us human. Which animal enjoys solving mathematics? Thus, as far as the distinction between human and animal pleasures, Mill’s claim seems reasonable. Another strength of Mill’s argument is his choice of words surrounding the ‘lower’ pleasures. We are told of a â€Å"satisfied† pig, and a â€Å"content† fool (pp.139-140). These sound like oxymoron, but also remind us of the much higher capacity for enjoyment of more intelligent people. A fool is easily contented, for he can easily exhaust the pleasure sources available to him. For the intelligent man or woman, the myriad of options available to them ensures they can never be lazily â€Å"content†. In addition, Mill’s views surrounding the ‘higher’ pleasures cannot beShow MoreRelatedOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pages. Organization Theory Challenges and Perspectives John McAuley, Joanne Duberley and Phil Johnson . This book is, to my knowledge, the most comprehensive and reliable guide to organisational theory currently available. What is needed is a text that will give a good idea of the breadth and complexity of this important subject, and this is precisely what McAuley, Duberley and Johnson have provided. They have done some sterling service in bringing together the very diverse strands of work

Analysis Of The Hiding Place By Betsie Ten Boom - 1016 Words

The Hiding Place – Betsie Ten Boom A Dutch woman, well-known as Betsie Ten Boom the daughter of a watchmaker, who is frail because anime and persecution but enjoys making every place she goes more homely and warm, has the faith, the serenity, and the complete conviction that the Lord is always there in every circumstance. This faith takes Betsie and her sister through the hardships they endure in the prisons and concentration camps where they are incarcerated. While her sister tends to pray for their needs, Betsie prays for their enemies, whom she sees through God’s eyes the guards, everyone who mistreats them, even thanking God for the fleas in their bunks. Her chestnut hair and elegant figure make her very graceful, but her kindness,†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"even though she knew preaching is not a human invention but a gracious creation of God and a central part of His revealed will for caring and loving. â€Å"Betsie had dome my hair that morning, labouring for an hour with the curling iron unti l it was piled high on my head- and so far, for wonder, it had stayed† (Page 39) There is nothing more beautiful than someone who goes out of their way to make life beautiful for other. Her faith continues, As Betsie relied on Corrie’s physical strength, Corrie relied on Betsie’s spiritual strength. Betsie humbly seeks to achieves this through what she says, â€Å"That wasn’t all.† Oh yes†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. to one another and to all. Rejoice always pray constantly, give thank in all circumstances; for this is the god in Jesus Christ† (Page 185). However, this quote shows how Betsie’s words were continuously inspire and encouraging others and this essentially means whatever happens in your life, no matter how troubling things might seem, do not enter the neighbourhood of despair. Even when all doors remain closed, God will open up a new path only for you always be thankful. ‘‘Betsie’s fingers traced a pattern on the wooden sink worn smooth by generation of Ten Booms. â€Å"I don’t know† she said softly. â€Å"But if god has

The day I went to the Department of Motor Vehicles Free Essays

When I decided to go to the United States, my friends were really envious of me. They called the United States ‘Dream Land’, and so did I. Yes, I came here to make my dreams come true. We will write a custom essay sample on The day I went to the Department of Motor Vehicles or any similar topic only for you Order Now I was so excited. When I boarded the airplane, my heart was beating faster and faster. And when I got off in the San Francisco International Airport, everything looked different from my country. Everything was beautiful. I admired the buildings, the people, I even thought that the sky here was so beautiful that home could not compare. Back home I hated it when it rains but here I thought of rainy days as romantic. The wind here was as cool as strawberry ice cream. I just loved everything in this ‘Dream Land’.   This was paradise to me, where I thought everyone is an angel. Little did I know that this illusion would soon be over, and this is the story of how my ‘Dream Land’ crumbled before my very eyes. Everything started when I decided I needed a car. Back home, I never felt the inconvenience of not having a car. I could go almost everywhere by foot and if I had to go somewhere far the bus can be relied on. However, ‘Dream land’ is huge; I could not go to market without a car. Everything was far from my place and the buses never came on time, so I spend hours on the road to get to where I need to go. That’s why I decided to buy a car. My parents however did not understand my situation. My father thought I envied friends who have cars, but eventually he agreed and said that if I can get a license he will buy me a car. My teacher gave me driver’s hand book to study and wrote a letter for the DMV to explain that I am an international student and that I needed assistance to get my driver’s license. During that time I was as student in the English as a Second Language center at Sac State. My English was not good. I had difficulty expressing myself in English. I could understand what they are saying but I could not give a reply since it was so hard for me to say what I am thinking. That’s why my teacher wanted the DMV officer to read her letter. When I went to DMV, I had to wait an hour and half until my number was called even if I had a reservation. An hour and a half was really a long time to wait, but that was still okay with me. My frustration started right after that. I went to the window which has my number on the screen. There was old white lady. She looked very blunt and never smiled. I said, â€Å"Hi, um,, I   want to take a test for the driver’s license.† But, she did not understand what I said. She repeatedly said â€Å"Excuse me, what? What?† I was losing my confidence. Americans would never understand, how scary it is for a foreigner when they say ‘What?’ in a condescending if not antagonizing way. Any way, when she finally understood me, I showed her my documents, including my   passport, I-20 and the letter that my teacher wrote. The blunt old white lady said to me. ‘No, you can not take a test because you do not have social security number.’ I politely explained to her that I could not understand because international students can not get social security number, and some of my friends took test just a day before, but she said ‘why are you talking about your friends? I do not care about them. The problem is that you do not have social security number.’ I felt that she was annoyed and did not want to listen to my poor English. So, finally I asked her to read the letter. However, she did not read it and said ‘Sac State is not my government.’ I was speechless with amazement, and I could not accept what she said. When I tried to say something, she said ‘why are you still here? If you can not follow American law, go back to your country.’ She was really rude. And the experience was   so frustrating for me. That was the day I realized that this place is not the ‘Dream Land’ I thought it to be. The angel has turned into a scary antagonizing monster, whom I hate. As I walked to the bus stop I could not stop my tears from falling and soon I was crying so hard. It was a very painful experience for me. I was so humiliated by the way the rude white lady who does not know what is legal. I hated her. I hated myself for not being able to express my thoughts in English. And I hated this ‘Dream land’ where they do not give social security number to international students, and want to us pay ten times expensive tuition fee than that paid by their citizens. That was the day I understood what racism means. I am an Asian who could not speak English well, so the white lady did not listen to me. I thought to myself, this not ‘Dream land’ after all, the old lady at the DMV made me realize just that and she did it in a really painful manner. I went to the mall to meet my friend and tell this story because if I did not tell this story that day, I think I would have died.   We sat at the food court, and spoke in Korean. I felt so relieved that I could speak in my mother tongue and be understood by my friend. Suddenly, an old white man came to us. He asked us, ‘What language are you guys talking with?’ We said, ‘Korean’. We thought he was interested in listening to another language. However, it was another illusion. He explained that we have to speak only in English in the ‘Dream land.’ We were so offended by what he said but what offended us more and made us very angry were his last words to us. He said ‘Go to the restroom and wash your mouths.’ I could not believe he was insulting us because we did not speak in English. From that day, ‘Dream land’ is not dream land to me any more. And I realize how wrong I was to think that this is ‘Dream Land†. There is no dream land and no angels. It was really a sad experience for me to be treated unfairly because of my race and poor English. From then on, I studied English very hard until I could speak very well. Nowadays, when I see people who can not speak English well at the mall or on the road, I try my best to help them and I am always careful not to say anything that would ruin their confidence because I do not want to break their dreams like the old white lady did to me. If they still think this is ‘Dream Land’ I do not want to ruin it for them.       How to cite The day I went to the Department of Motor Vehicles, Essay examples

How Revolutionary Was the American Revolution Essay free essay sample

The American Revolution was a major change In our history. Many things have happened to show this major change In our history such as, The Boston Massacre, The Tax Act, Boston Tea Part, and The Battle at Saratoga. These are Just some of the things that happened during the American Revolution. The American Revolution was mostly a radical change because of the extreme changes In political, social, and economical areas.Socially, the American Revolution changed radically because of the abolition of slavery, the women, and the men coming together. The first document was written In 1961 It shows a map with dates on the states to tell you when slavery ended. It finally all ended In 1865 In the south. The northern states ended earlier and were the first to end in 1777. The second document was written In 1776 It Is a letter written to John Adams from his wife Abigail Adams. Its a letter to him telling him the unfairness the women have. We will write a custom essay sample on How Revolutionary Was the American Revolution Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It also states the fact that women want and deserve ore freedom than they have at the moment. The letter also explains how the women are going to start fighting for their rights if they dont get them soon. The last document was written in 1797 it is a picture of men playing billiards, it is the rich and poor men playing together. It symbolizes that it doesnt matter what your rank or status is and that everyone can play together and it wont matter. After reading these documents you can see why the revolution was such a radical change in American history.

Value Chain Analysis for Starbucks Essay Example

Value Chain Analysis for Starbucks Essay Global, European and Irish Markets are oligopolies; they are dominated by a few large companies. GlobalEuropeanIrish (Hot Cereals) Kellogg’sKellogg’sFlahavan’s General MillsCereal Partners WorldwideOdlum’s KraftWeetabix LtdKelkin OtherOther Breakfast Cereals Industry Profile: Europe 2009), (Breakfast Cereals Industry Profile: Global 2009) Scope of Competitive Rivalry (Appendix 3) * The scope of competitive rivalry is multinational Buyer needs and requirements(Appendix 4) * Supermarkets/Hypermarkets – need to meet consumer demand * Catering companies – need to buy in large bulk capacity * Hospitality industry – need smaller individual selection of boxes to meet consumer needs * Individual customers – all have different needs and requirements (taste preferences or health reasons) Degree of product differentiation(Appendix ) * Packaging – Different colours and styles are used to differentiate products * Taste – Different flavours of cereal are made to distinguish one product from another * Companies use huge advertising budgets to convince customers that there product is different and unique Product innovation(Appendix 6) * Success driven by innovation * Large scale budgets spent on research and development * Co-branding products with other companies * Diversifying brands in new directions e. g. Coco Pops, Coco Wheels Supply/Demand conditions (Appendix ) Supply * Farmers grow most of the ingredients that are used in breakfast cereals, such as wheat, grain and oats * Other suppliers include manufacturers of plastic and cardboard * The U. S. import sugar, so companies operating there are reliant on suppliers to supply them sugar Demand * We will write a custom essay sample on Value Chain Analysis for Starbucks specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Value Chain Analysis for Starbucks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Value Chain Analysis for Starbucks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Customers can change brand or buy substitutes with little cost effect * Hypermarkets/supermarkets (retailers) decide who gets shelf space * Retailers have to stock popular brands to satisfy consumer demand Pace of Technological conditions(Appendix ) * High pace of technological change in the cereal industry * New technologies are necessary to keep up with product innovation * New technologies are allowing the cereal industry to ship their raw materials globally were it can be manufactured cheaper * The internet is allowing these companies to order supplies, distribute products and communicate with customers quicker Vertical integration(Appendix 9) The Global cereal industry is a vertically integrated industry. Companies participate in more than one stage of the industry * Kellogg’s are involved in the manufacturing and marketing of their products, they operate in many countries * General Mills are involved the manufacturing, marketing and distribution of their products * Kraft Foods manufacture and market food and beverages in many different countries Economies of scale (Appendix 10) The dominant companies in the industry are able to use a low cost strategy by using economies of scale * The major players can purchase supplies in large bulk, getting a reduced price on the costs of material required and producing at a lower cost * The breakfast cereal industry also uses streamline marketing, were two companies within the industry will market products together. This cuts marketing costs considerably Learning and experience curve effects(Appendix 11) Must have knowledge of equipment required for manufacturing * Set up conta cts with suppliers to get their materials to make the products * Access distribution channels, such as negotiating with grocery stores to get them to shelf their products * Try to develop their brand into a household product, to gain brand recognition and build a customer base PESTEL(Appendix 12) When researching the cereal industry, we conducted a PESTEL analysis, these are our findings: Political * Employment laws * Food and drug laws The US have freedom of business practices and trade regulations * Global Codes of Ethics * FDA regulates trade and tariff laws Economic * Interest rates * Exchange rates * Inflation rates * Due to recession people have less disposable income * Farmers are sowing less because their incomes have dropped Social * Demographics and the social environment * Different cultural attitudes towards breakfast * High unemployment * People want value for money * Less inclined to be brand loyal * More health conscious society Technological * Presents a barrier to entry to new companies New technology makes it easier to ship cereal and products globally * The internet is allowing these companies to order supplies, distribute products an d communicate with customers quicker * Improvements in technology may help farmers grow raw materials such as grain more easily and efficiently Environmental * Comply with environmental laws and regulations * Subject to various federal, state, local laws and regulations * In the US Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Resource Conservation, Recovery Act and also the Superfund Legal Companies trading in the European market need to be aware of changing employment laws (Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act 2005) * Comply with packaging laws * Irish Breakfast Cereal Association new advertising code focusing on advertising for children Figure1. 3Industry Lifecycle Sales/ Revenue Maturity Shakeout Decline Growth Embryonic Time * Growth Slows and becomes stable * Remains like this for a sustainable period of time * Companies tend to develop accompaniments of the original product * This helps maintain a higher level of growth (Beginnermoney) What factors are the driving industry changes and what impacts will they have? (Appendix 13) The factors that are most likely to exert greatest influence in the breakfast cereal industry over the next one to three years are: economic factors, the economic driving forces will have a positive and negative effect on the industry. * Economic growth * Interest rates * Exchange rates * Inflation rates * Government legislation * Threats of substitutes is also a driver of change in the industry * Power of suppliers â€Å"By 2013 the global breakfast cereals market is forecast to have a value of $28. billion, an increase of 17. 1% since 2008†(Breakfast Cereals Industry Profile: Global 2009) That is impressive increase which will have a positive effect on the industry leaders regarding profitability and market share. Government legislation can affect the industry with introduction of new tax brackets this can have a negative effect on profits for the companies and buying power of the cu stomers. A change in exchange rates may affect the breakfast industry in the following ways: * Exchange rates changes can increase or lower the price of a product sold abroad * The price of imported raw materials may change The price of competitor’s products may change in the home market A change in interest rates might affect the breakfast industry in the following ways; * If the company have a series of loans then an increase in interest rates will mean higher repayments, reducing profits * If a company wants to borrow money to invest in new technology, then they are less likely to go ahead with the project when interest rates increase Inflation affects any economy in the world when it is high and volatile. To maintain the same level of living standards you would have to pay more * You would have to pay more for same amount of goods and services you had used prior to inflation. * The majority of the time, your income does not increase at the same rate as inflation * If a country is affected by high inflation they may lose competiveness and may seek to deploy their operations to a more cost friendly country Power of suppliers is only moderate in rel ation to the five forces model. This is due to the uncertainty of the raw material needed to produce the cereals. Wheat for example will vary in price because of the extensive forces that affect the growing. The driving forces are making competition more intense, with the ongoing intense battles for market share. The industry leaders will try their utmost to keep rivalry high and to retain their customer loyalty. The potential industry growth would suggest that the driving forces will lead to higher industry profitability in the future. Figure 1. 5Strategic Group Map Competitors| Competitive Characteristics of Industry Firms| Kellogg’s CompanyGeneral Mills, Inc. Kraft Foods, IncNestleQuaker OatsWeetabix| Price LocationBrand (Reputation/ popularity)QualityNutrient ValueTypesPackaging| Kraft and the other companies in the industry are clustered together indicating that there is a strong cross-group competitive rivalry between them. Kraft are probably in the worse position, they are competing directly with many others in the industry but also may struggle to reach Kellogg’s position, as Kellogg’s is a brand leader in this industry. The only way to compete is to lower prices. General Mills are in the best position on the map as they have a good reputation and are able to compete with lowest prices in the market. They also have room to improve their reputation and then have more opportunity to lower prices further. There are gaps in the lower half of the graph, new entrants could target this industry at this position, offering low prices and then with time, recognition will grow. Global Breakfast cereal industry Figure 1. 6 Strategic Moves Companies| Kellogg’s| General Mills| Kraft Co. | Pricing| $$$| $$| $$$| KeyIndustries| * Ready to eat cereal * Snacks * Convenience foods| * Ready to eat cereals * Snacks * Retail * Foodservice| * Ready to eat cereals * Snacks * Beverages * Dairy| Current Strategy| * Product innovation * Cost reduction * Invest in product research (Kellogg’s Marketing Strategy and Marketing Plans)| * Focus on gluten free market * Advertise in gluten free magazines * Products to suit the need of Celiac sufferers(Slideshare)| * New product focus * Improve core brands * Improve brand awareness| Future Plans| October 2010Considering using laser technology to stamp their logo on each individual flake in order to stamp out imitation products. If successful, it should decrease the sales of imitation products and lose private companies market share. It should also increase sales of Kellogg’s products and increase their market share. BPCouncil)| 1st April 2010 – PRHaving recognised the desire for new properties, have optioned off the rights to three of their cereals to entertainment channel. The characters will appear in 3D movies and General Mills will include 3D glasses in their cereal boxes. Production will finish in April 2011. The money that is made from optioning off the rights will be used to purchase property| 23rd March 2010 – PR by Nicola WilkinsonAim to target the British market with new breakfast cereal biscuit product. (Slideshare)21st October 2010 – PR Announce that they are to raise prices in response to the rise in the price of grain and other commodity prices (Bloomberg 2010)They are to increase the number of cities that it operates in, in China. | European Breakfast Cereal Industry Companies| Kellogg’s| Cereal Partners Limited| Weetabix Limited| Pricing| $$$| $$| $$| KeyIndustries| * Ready to eat cereal * Snacks * Staples| * Ready to eat cereals | * Ready to eat cereals * Snacks * Hot cereal| Current Strategy| * Outsourcing * Development of new products(Kelloggs 2010)| * Cost reduction * Expand market share through joint ventures * Product Innovation(ReportBuyer December 2007)| * Product research and development * Cost reduction| Future Plans| Have recently created 50 more jobs at its European HQ in Dublin, extending the number of employees to 250, and enhancing their reputation. | N/A| N/A| Figure 1. 7Cereal Industry Key Success Factors (KSFs)

Ergonomics Lifting Lab †Anatomy Essay

Ergonomics Lifting Lab – Anatomy Essay Free Online Research Papers Ergonomics Lifting Lab Anatomy Essay Abstract The purpose of the experiment was to determine the moment of force as well as the shear and compressive forces acting on the lumbar spine (L4/L5) during two different lifting techniques – crane and bent knee. The experiment included photographing an 81.14 Kg male lifting a 20Kg mass 25 cm off the floor using each of the lifting techniques. The photographs were then used to calculate the moment of force of the erector spinae for the crane (250.3Nm) and bent knee (273.4Nm) lifts. The moment of force was used to calculate the force produced by the erector spinae in the crane (5006N) and bent knee (5470.2N) methods. The shear and compressive forces of the erector spinae were also calculated for the crane method – shear (530.49N), compressive (5312.3N) and the bent knee method – shear (351.35N, 158.32N) and compressive (5821.5, 6061.8N). The two measurements presented for the bent knee method indicate the two different angles of L4/L5. The calculations indicate that the bent knee method would be preferred in preventing low back pain as it causes lower shear forces on the L4/L5 region of the spine. Introduction: Second only to the common cold, low back pain is the most prevalent affliction of man (Borenstein, 1995). Approximately 80% of the total population is affected by this problem sometime in their life, thus it cannot be ignored. With respect to the working community, back pain is the most common musculoskeletal condition with 25% of all working men being affected by low back problems, forcing one out of twenty-five to change jobs (Anderson, 1989). Work related risk factors include repetitive lifting; particularly in forward bent and twisting positions, exposure to vibration and predominantly static work posture. These problems peak at the age of 40 for men and 50-60 for women. Due to occupations requiring less physical work, women have a decreased incidence of low back pain in comparison with men, giving improper lifting of heavy weights (Anderson, 1989). However, a decrease in the quality of life and increase in the level of stress can have dramatic effects on the productivity of society. Low back pain has been clearly established to be triggered by lifting (Moore, 1992). More importantly, improper lifting techniques have been implicated as the major cause of work-related low back pain (Fathallah et al., 1998). Recurrences are frequent, and three or more episodes have been reported in 30 to 70% of afflicted patients (Moore, 1992). The combination of lifting, bending and twisting is believed to be quite stressful to the spine because of the load moment. Weight, speed of the lift, location of the load and posture of the trunk are also important factors to consider (Anderson, 1989). Compressive and shear forces are two primary forces that affect the lumbar spine (Garg, 1992). The vertebral body is the first structure to fail with compressive and shear forces causing the vertebrae to move forward and down relative to the vertebra below it (Adams and Dolan, 1995). With respect to this lab, the compressive force rises from 500 N during standing to 1900 N when stooping to lift a 10 kg weight (Adams and Dolan, 1995). Incidence rates of low back pain are nine times higher when compressive forces are greater than 650 kg (6500 N) (Anderson, 1989). In this lab, we will examine the biomechanics of the crane and bent knee methods of lifting using a static model. We will determine the moment of force on the back extensor muscle group as well as the force acting on the lumbar spine. To find these values, the load on the lumbar spine (L4/L5) will need to be calculated. The weight of the body, arms, an external force (weight) and the erector spinae will also be considered. The erector spinae is the key extensor muscle of the vertebral column (Moore and Agur, 1996) while L4/L5 is critical for forward flexion and extension of the low back region (McGill and Norman, 1986). Due to the small moment arm (5 cm) between the erector spinae and L4/L5, small forces applied during lifting can produce large internal muscle forces (Garg, 1992), resulting in low back problems, and more specifically, chronic pain. With the incidence of low back pain rising consistently, physiotherapists are at the forefront of creating techniques and treatments that relieve low back pain. Traditionally, these treatments have been aimed at â€Å"living with the pain† and recently more active mobilization techniques are being implemented (D’Orazio, 1993). The focus is now on understanding and teaching the mechanical principles involved in lifting, rather than simply teaching a particular technique. Because low back pain is often a result of repeated stress over time (Garg, 1992), and not merely a one time accident, physiotherapists have to understand the relationship between individuals and job-related factors and the resulting risk of injury to the worker (Moore, 1992). This understanding of the biomechanics of lifting will result in improved patient education and adherence to prevention and treatment plans. Methods: The subject of this experiment was a twenty year old, 81.14Kg male with no previous history of back pain. Anatomical landmarks were placed on the subject to define segments for the calculations. In order to have these markers visible in the photograph, the subject wore shorts and removed his shirt. These anatomical landmarks were positioned in specific areas; they included: the auditory canal, glenohumeral joint, ulnar styloid process, C7/T1 spinous process and the L4/L5 vertebrae at the anterior superior iliac spine. These landmarks were represented by florescent markers and were positioned in the sagital plane of the subject so that they were visible in the digital photograph. Two separate photographs of the subject were taken. Each consisted of the subject being positioned parallel to a solid backdrop situated a few meters in front of the camera. Located on the backdrop were reference markers placed a meter apart (for scaling purposes). The subject was photographed lifting a 20 kg mass at a height of 0.25 m above of the ground using two separate techniques. The first photograph was of the subject exhibiting the â€Å"crane† method of lifting. In the subsequent photograph the subject utilized the â€Å"bent knee† technique. These digital recordings were then transferred to the computer where they were printed off for the purpose of static analysis (Appendix A B). The mass of each segment was determined by using values from Soderberg’s anthropometric data (Soderberg, 1986). The mass was calculated by multiplying the subject’s total mass (81.14Kg) by the percentage of total body weight of the particular segment. Thus, to determine each segmental force, the segmental masses were simply multiplied by the gravitational force. The purpose of the aforementioned landmarks was to serve as a means of determining the segmental lengths of the subject. These body segments consisted of the head and neck, thorax and abdomen, the upper arm and the forearm. In order to determine the actual length of the body segments, they were first measured in the photograph (in centimeters) and then converted into actual length in meters using the scaling factor. We were then able to use these segmental lengths to determine each segment’s centre of mass. This was calculated by multiplying the segment length (from the photographs) by the proximal distance of the COM taken from Soderberg’s anthropometric tables (1986). In determining the moment arm lengths of each segment and the load, we first drew a vertical line through the L4/ L5 axis on the photographs. By measuring the perpendicular distance from the centre of mass to the axis of rotation, we were then able to calculate the true moment arm lengths using our scaling factor. See pictures for drawing of the moment arms (Appendix A B). Prior to calculating the muscle moments of force, the muscle force, and the shear and compressive components of the Joint Reaction Force, several assumptions had to be made. These consisted of: 1) no acceleration (static equilibrium); 2) angle of vertebral body from horizontal during the crane lift was 60 degrees, and 35 15 for the bent knee lift; 3) no antagonistic muscle action; 4.) Moment Arm Length (MAL) of erector spinae (ES) muscle is 0.05m; 5) Force of ES acts perpendicular to the vertebral body, which is a compressive force; 6) Single muscle equivalents. Results: Table 1. shows the results of the calculations which can be seen in Appendix E. The results indicate that the moment of force of the erector spinae muscle is greater for the bent knee method of lifting than for that of the crane method by 23.2Nm. Table 1. also demonstrates the muscle force of the erector spinae when using the two different lifting techniques and shows clearly that the bent knee method causes a 464.16N larger force on the erector spinae than the crane method of lifting. The shear and compressive forces are also reported in Table 1. The crane method shows the lowest compressive force (5312N) and the highest shear force at 520.49N. The bent knee method (at both angles of L4/L5) shows higher compressive and lower shear forces. When the spine was bent at a 35 º angle a compressive force of 5821.48N is seen and a shear force of 351.35N; when bent at a 15 º angle the compressive force was 6061.8N and the shear force was 158.32N. Overall this demonstrates clearly that as the angle of the spine at L4/L5 increases as the compressive force decreases. The opposite is true for the shear force on L4/L5; as the angle increases the shear force also increases. Table 2. shows the moment of force for each body segment which was then used to calculate the moment of force of the erector spinae seen in Table 1. The calculations for the data found in these tables are presented in Appendix E. Table 1. A comparison of the moment and muscle forces of the erector spinae muscle and the compressive and shear joint reaction forces on that muscle during two different lifting techniques – crane and bent knee. Method of Lifting Moment Force of Erector Spinae (Nm) Muscle Force of Erector Spinae (N) JRF Compressive on L4/L5 (N) JRF Shear on L4/L5 (N) JRF Resultant (N) Crane 250.3 5006 5312.3 530.49 5338.72 Bent Knee 15 273.5 5470.16 6061.8 158.32 6063.87 Bent Knee 35 273.5 5470.16 5821.48 351.35 5832.1 Table 2. Moment of force for each body segment, calculations in Appendix E Segment Moment of Force (Nm) Head Neck 42.95 Thorax Abdomen 47.13 Upper Arms 24.2 Lower Arms 12.62 Box 123.4 Discussion: The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the moment of force of the erector spinae muscle group, as well as forces acting on the lumbar spine, between the crane method of lifting and the bent knee method of lifting. In this study, the moment of force of the erector spinae muscle group was determined to be 23.2Nm greater during the bent knee method of lifting compared to the crane method of lifting (Table. 1). The bent knee method has a greater moment of force because all the segment moment arm lengths (MAL) are larger than they are for the crane method (Table 2 Table 4). The definition of moment of force is the MAL of the segment(s) multiplied by the force acting on the segment(s) (Neumann, 2002). In addition, because the MAL for the erector spinae muscle group was 0.05m for both the crane and bent knee method, the MALs of the body segments plus the 20kg box were the only changing factors. Therefore, the extra moment of force of the erector spinae in the bent knee method is due solely to the increased distance to the center of mass of the box and body segments from the L4/L5 vertebrae. The force of the erector spinae muscle group was also larger during the bent knee method compared to the crane method (Table. 1). The magnitude of the force generated by the erector spinae muscle group is directly proportional to the erector spinae’s moment of force. Therefore, because both the force and the moment of force of the erector spinae muscle group are directly proportional, the MALs are the only changing factors. Potvin et al.’s study (1991) obtained similar results concerning the moment of force of the erector spinae muscle group. They implemented five trials of crane and bent knee lifts that involved increasing weights for each trial. In their trial with a 22kg weight the moment of force of the erector spinae muscles were 269.5Nm for the crane method and 275.6Nm for the bent knee method. Frankel and Nordin (1989) however, obtained data contrary to this study. Their results showed that the crane method had a larger moment of force of the erector spinae group than the bent knee method. Fortunately these contradictions can be explained by comparing MALs in both studies. Frankel and Nordin (1989) point out that the moment of force of the erector spinae muscles can be significantly increased during the bent knee method if the object’s distance from the body is increased. In their study, the moment of force of the erector spinae muscles increases from 151Nm when the object is close, to 212.5Nm when the object is farther away. Thus, the fact that the MAL in this study is longer in the bent knee method than the crane method suggests that the object in this study was farther away than in Frankel and Nordin’s study. It is of note that there are a number of factors that contribute to spinal load during lifting and carrying. These factors are important for the physiotherapist and are as follows: 1) The objects position relative to the spine’s center of motion, 2) the spine’s degree of flexion and or rotation and 3) the size, shape, weight and density of the object (Frankel and Nordin, 1989). The anatomical structure of the spine allows for the vertebrae to withstand a significantly larger compressive joint reaction force (JRF) compared to a shear JRF (McGill, 2002). More specifically, McGill (2002) states that the tissue tolerance in vitro for compressive forces is 10,000N while it is only 2800N for shear forces. In addition, according to NIOSH the maximum permissible limit (MPL) for lifting is a compressive force of 6400N and a shear force of 1000N. The significant difference between the MPL of compressive force compared to shear force on the lumbar vertebrae can be explained by the anatomy of the spine. The spinal cord is positioned in the body predominantly on a vertical axis. Furthermore, throughout the vertebral column each vertebra is separated by a vertebral disc containing vertebral fluid designed to cushion forces on the spinal cord. Therefore, because the definition of a compressive force is to push two ends of an object together the vertebrae are better able to withstand compressive forces than they are shear forces which act to slide ends apart. The compressive JRF in this study was greater for the bent knee method compared to the crane method (Table. 1). The bent knee method had a compressive force of 5821.5N when the L4/L5 vertebrae had an angle of 35 degrees and 6061.8N when the angle was 15 degrees. The crane method had a compressive force of 5006N at an angle of 60 degrees (Table. 1). A higher compressive force for the bent knee method is expected due to the angle on the L4/L5 vertebrae being smaller than the crane method angle. The compressive JRF occurring at the L4/L5 vertebrae is measured by taking the Sine of the angle to which the segment weights are acting (Table. 3). In addition to the Sine component of all the segment weights the muscle force of the erector spinae muscles is added because we are assuming that the orientation of the erector spinae muscles allows for compressive JRF only. The erector spinae muscles are positioned practically perpendicular to the inferior and superior surfaces of the vertebr al discs and parallel to the line of the vertebral bodies (McGill Norman, 1987). Therefore, the greater the spinal angle, the larger the Sine component determining the compressive JRF will be. In other words, the more erect your posture during lifting, the greater the compressive force acting upon your vertebrae. Potvin et al’s study (1991) has similar findings on the compressive JRF during the two methods of lifting. In support of this study their findings were that the bent knee method creates greater compressive forces on the L4/L5 vertebrae than does the crane method. The shear JRF in this study was greater for the crane method than the bent knee method (Table 1). Particularly, the shear JRF for the crane method, which has a spinal angle of 60 degrees, was 530.5N, while it was 158.3N for the bent knee method at 15 degrees and 351.35N for the bent knee method at 35 degrees (Table 1). Shear JRF is determined by the Cosine of the spinal angle multiplied by the sum of the external weights. This explains the shear JRF being greater for the crane method than the bent knee method. In other words the more you bend over when lifting the greater the shear forces on your L4/L5 vertebrae. Shear JRF is considered to be more damaging than compressive JRF during lifting, in relation to low back pain (Potvin et al., 1991). The crane method of lifting has the greater shear force and, according to Potvin et al., is the more dangerous lifting method. However, it should be noted that the shear JRF during the crane lift was only 53% of the MPL, while the compressive force during the bent knee lift, at a spinal angle of 15 degrees, was 95% of the MPL. Therefore, even though shear forces are considered to be more dangerous in terms of lumbar vertebrae, the crane method only exerted a shear JRF that was half of the MPL. Thus, upon lifting a 20kg weight the shear JRFs are of no great concern. It should be noted that although the crane method is only producing a shear JRF that is half of the MPL, cumulative shear over a given period of time has been shown to be very important as a metric risk to injury (Norman et al., 1998). A number of assumptions have been made during this study that could have affected the results. Two of the assumptions made for this study can be looked at together. 1) The erector spinae muscle group is studied as a single muscle equivalent, and 2) the MAL for the erector spinae is 0.05m. McGill and Norman’s study (1987) examined the erector spinae muscle group using the individual muscles and found that the MAL for the erector spinae should be 0.075m rather than the previous accepted 0.05m. This 50% increase of the MAL is determined by reassessing all the active extensor tissues that act under an equivalent MAL. In another study, the MAL of the erector spinae muscle group was 0.06m (Dennis and Barrett, 2002). Therefore, the implications to this study is that there is an under estimate of the erector spinae muscle group force. Increasing the MAL used would significantly lower the compressive JRFs of the crane and bent knee methods away from the MPL. No antagonistic activity is another assumption made in this study. There has been some debate on the role of abdominal muscle activity during lifting. Zetterberg et al. (1987) found that there was above minimal antagonistic activity of the abdominals during lifting. It has been hypothesized that intra-abdominal pressure creates a tensile force as well as an extensor moment on the lumbar spine (Bartelink, 1957 and Morris et al., 1961). If this hypothesis is true it still doesn’t specify the force and extensor moment the abdominals produce at different positions of the spine. Therefore, in this study the antagonistic force of the abdominals would not be differentiated between the bent knee and crane method of lifting. As a result, if there was discrepancy because of antagonistic abdominal force it would not alter the results of the forces obtained on the lower back. The last assumption that will be looked at is that the study was performed under static equilibrium. Static equilibrium has been used numerous times in the literature (Dennis Barrett, 2002; Granata Wilson, 2001; Kozey et al., 1990; McGill Norman, 1985). Static equilibrium is used frequently when interpreting the forces acting on lumbar vertebrae during lifting. However, according to McGill and Norman et al.’s study (1985), using a static model gave lower lumbar moments of force as well as lower compressive JRFs compared to a dynamic model. The implications of the static model having values less than the dynamic model is that the actual stress the lower back is subjected to during lifting may be greater than the static model predicts. Therefore, lifting tasks that are under the MPL may actually be above the MPL, putting the subject in danger of lower back injuries. The objective of the study is to determine the forces acting on the lower back during lifting. The crane method compared to the bent knee method is analogous to a flexed spine compared to a neutral spine. In accordance with our study, McGill (2002) states that the flexed spine creates a greater shear JRF than does the neutral spine. More specifically, McGill (2002) states that maintaining a more neutral lordotic posture, while lifting, will reduce the shear JRFs to about 200N from 1000N. The reduction in the shear force is due to the extensor moment created by the extensor musculature. The extensor moment creates a posterior shear force that supports the anterior shear forces produced by the upper body (McGill, 2002). Additionally, the lumborum fibers help protect against anterior shear and the interspinous ligament helps resist posterior shear of the superior vertebrae, while maintaining a neutral spine. However, during lumbar flexion, the lumborum fibers cause a loss of the fiber’s oblique angle, causing loss of protection again anterior shear, while the interspinous ligament contributes to anterior shear on the anterior vertebrae (McGill, 2002). Furthermore, the risk of a shear injury during lumbar flexion is 10% versus a compressive injury being only 3% (McGill, 2002). Thus, it is plausible to deduce that a method of lifting that increases the shear JRF has a higher risk of injury than a method that has a lower shear JRF. In relation to this study, the crane method increases the shear JRF and therefore has a greater risk of inducing injury than the bent knee method. Conclusion: The purpose of this experiment is to determine which lifting technique (crane or bent knee) is the most effective in limiting the stress on the L4/L5 region of the spine. The results indicate that the bent knee method induces a lower shear force on this region of the spine and therefore is a better and safer lifting technique. Although the bent knee causes greater compressive forces than the crane method it is still safer because shear forces are what tend to cause injury and pain. The results indicate that the moment arm length is naturally shorter when an object is lifted using the bent knee method because of the natural position of the body. The shorter moment arm length leads to lower forces on the erector spinae. Also demonstrated is that a smaller angle of the vertebrae leads to lower shear forces. These results demonstrate clearly that a smaller vertebral angle and a smaller moment arm length will lead to lower forces on the erector spinae. References Adams, M. and Dolan, P. (1995). Recent advances in lumbar spinal mechanics and their clinical significance. Clinical Biomechanics, 10, 03-19. Anderson, G. (1989). Lumbar Spine Syndromes: Evaluation and Treatment. New York: Springer – Verlag Wein. Bartelink, D.L. (1957) The role of abdominal pressure on the lumbar intervertebral discs. Journal of Bone and Joint Surger,y 39B, 718-725. Borenstein, D. (1995). Low Back Pain: Medical Diagnosis and Compressive management. W.B Saunders Company. Philadelphia. 28 Cholewicki J., McGill, S.M. (1996). Mecanical stability of the in vivo lumbar spine: implications for injury and chronic low back pain. Clinical Biomechanics, 11, 1-15. Cholewicki J., Panjabi, M.M., Khachatryan, A. (1997). Stability function of trunk flexor- extensor muscles around a neutral spine. Spine, 22, 2207-2212. Denenberg-Segal, D. (1983). An Anatomic and Biomechanic Approach to Low Back Health. A Preventive Approach. Journal of Sports Medicince and Physical Fitness, 23, 411-421. Dennis, G.J., Barrett, R.S. (2002). Spinal loads during individual and team lifting. Ergonomics 45, (10), 671-681. D’Orazio, B. (1993). Back Pain Rehabilitation. Boston: Medical Publishers. Fathallah, F., Marras W. and Parnianpour, M. (1997). An Assessment of Complex Spinal Loads During Dynamic Lifting Tasks. Spine, 22 (9), 935-940. Frankel, V.H., Nordin M. (1980). Basic Biomechanics of the skeletal system. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. Garg,, A. (1992). Occupational Biomechanics and Low Back Pain. Occupational Medicine State of Art Review, 7, 1609 – 1625. Granata, K.P. and Wilson S.E. (2001). Trunk Posture and spinal stability. Clinical Biomechanics, 16: 650-659. Granata, K.P., Marras, W.S. (1994). The influence of truck muscle coactivity upon dynamic spinal loads. Proceedings of the thirteenth Southern Biomedical engineering Conference Hayne, C.R. (1984). Ergonomics and Back Pain. Physiotherapy 70(1), 19-13. Hubley-Kozey, C.L., Westers, B.M., Stanish, W.D. and Wall, J.C. (1985). An investigation into the incidence of low back pain in hospital workers. The Nova Scotia Medical Bulletin. Feb: 8-10. Kozey, J.W., Hubley-Kozey, C.L., Grainger, J.W. (1990). An investigation of lower back injuries and the forces acting on the lower back during tasks performed by hospital workers. In Das B(ed). Advances in industrial ergonomics and safety II London: Taylor and Francis, 109-115. McGill, S.M. and Norman, R.W. (1987). Effects of an anatomically detailed erector spinae model on L4/L5 disc compression and shear. Journal of Biomechanics 20 (6), 591-699. McGill, S.M., Norman, R.W. (1985). Dynamically and statically determined low back moments during lifting. Journal of Biomechanics,18, 877-885. McGill, S.M. (1999). Stability: from biomechanical concept to chiropractic practice. Journal of Canadian chiropractic Association, 43, 71-86. McGill, S.M. (2002). Low back disorders: evidence-based prevention and rehabilitation. Human Kinetics, Windsor ON. Moore, S. (1992). Occupational Medicine. Ergonomics. Philadelphia: Hanley Belfu Inc. Morris, J.M., Lucas, D.B., Bresler, B. (1961). Role of the trunk in stability of the spine. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 43A, 327-351. Neumann, D.A. (2002). Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System: Foundations for Physical Rehabilitation. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, Inc. Norman R., Wells R., Neumann P, Frank J, Shannon H, Kerr M. (1998). A comparison of peak vs cumulative physical work exposure risk factors for the reporting of low back pain in the automotive industry. Clinical Biomechanics, 13 (8), 561-573. Potvin, J.R., McGill, S.M., Norman, R.W. (1991) Trunk muscle and lumbar ligament contributions to dynamic lifts with varying degrees of trunk flexion. Spine, 16 (9),1099-1107. Zetterberg, C., Anderson, G.B.J., Schultz, A.B. (1987). The activity of individual trunk muscles during heavy physical loading. Spine, 12 (10), 1035-1040. Appendix D Table 3. Presentation of mass, weight, length, moment arm length and calculation of moment for the crane lift. Segment Mass (Kg) Weight (N) Length Measured (m) Actual Length (m) MAL Actual (m) Moment (Nm) Head Neck 6.57 64.386 0.024 0.178 0.667 42.95 Thorax Abdomen 28.8 282.24 0.075 0.556 0.167 47.13 Upper Arms 4.54 44.492 0.0525 0.389 0.544 24.2 Lower Arms 2.6 25.44 0.046 0.341 0.496 12.62 Box 20 196 0.6296 123.4 Table 4. Presentation of data calculated in Appendix E showing the shear and compressive forces of the crane method with a spinal angle of 60 º. Segment Weight (N) Weight*Sin30 (Compressive N) Weight*Cos30 (Shear N) Head Neck 64.386 32.193 55.76 Thorax Abdomen 282.24 141.12 244.43 Upper Arms 44.492 22.246 38.53 Lower Arms 25.44 12.72 22.03 Box 196 98 169.74 Table 5. Calculations of mass, weight, length, moment arm length and calculation of moment for the bent knee lift lift. Segment Mass (Kg) Weight (N) Length Measured (m) Length Actual (m) MAL (m) Moment (Nm) Head Neck 6.57 64.386 0.023 0.177 0.654 42.108 Thorax Abdomen 28.8 282.24 0.072 0.554 0.208 58.7 Upper Arms 4.54 44.492 0.052 0.4 0.546 24.29 Lower Arms 2.596 25.44 0.045 0.346 0.561 14.27 Box 20 196 0.715 140.14 Table 6. Presentation of data calculated in Appendix E showing the shear and compressive forces of the bent knee lifting method with a spinal angle of 35 º. Segment Weight (N) Weight*Sin55 (Compressive N) Weight*Cos55 (Shear N) Head Neck 64.386 52.74 36.93 Thorax Abdomen 282.24 231.2 161.89 Upper Arms 44.492 36.45 25.52 Lower Arms 25.44 20.84 14.59 Box 196 160.55 112.42 Table 7. Presentation of data calculated in Appendix E showing the shear and compressive forces of the bent knee lifting method with a spinal angle of 15 º. Segment Weight (N) Weight*Sin75 (Compressive N) Weight*Cos75 (Shear N) Head Neck 64.386 62.192 16.66 Thorax Abdomen 282.24 272.6 73.05 Upper Arms 444.492 42.98 11.52 Lower Arms 25.44 24.573 6.36 Box 196 189.3 50.73 Appendix E Calculations: Conversion factor Appendix A = 7.41 Conversion factor for Appendix B = 7.69 Sample calculation for conversion of measured length to actual length: Crane method 1m = .135m 1/.135 = 7.41 = conversion factor 0.024m (measured length of head and neck) * 7.41 = 0.178m (actual length) Sample calculation for Moment of Force MAL * Weight of Segment = Moment of Force 0.667m * 64.386 = 42.95Nm Sample Calculation for Moment of the Erector Spinae: Crane method 0 = ?M 0 = -MES + MH + MT + MUP + MLA + MB MES = 42.95 + 47.13 + 24.20 + 12.62 + 123.4 MES = 250.3 Nm 250.3Nm/0.05m = 5006N Bent Knee method 0 = ?MES 0 = -MES + MH + MT + MA + MB MES = 42.108 + 58.7 + 24.29 + 14.27 + 140.14 MES = 273.51Nm 273.51Nm/0.05m = 5470.16N Sample Calculation for compressive component of individual body segments: Crane method Weight*Sin30 64.386*Sin30 = 32.193N Sample Calculation for Compressive component of Joint Reaction Force (JRFC) 0 = JRFC – FH – FT – FA – FB FES(c) JRFC = 32.193 + 141.12 + 22.246 + 12.72 + 98 + 5006 JRFC = 5312.3N Sample Calculation for shear component of individual body segments: Crane method Weight*Cos60 64.386*Cos30 = 55.76N Sample Calculation for shear component of Joint Reaction Force (JRFS) Crane method 0 = -JRFS + FH + FT + FA + FB JRFS = 55.76 + 244.43 + 38.53 + 22.03 + 169.74 JRFS = 530.49N Research Papers on Ergonomics Lifting Lab - Anatomy EssayDefinition of Export QuotasTrailblazing by Eric AndersonThe Hockey GamePersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalCapital PunishmentAnalysis Of A Cosmetics Advertisement

Communication Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Communication Theories - Essay Example As Giles & Clair (1979: 17) note, "language is not a homogeneous, static system. It is multi-channeled, multi-variable and capable of vast modifications from context to context by the speaker, slight differences of which are often detected by listeners and afforded social significance." Given the fact that even the most trivial aspects of speech and pronunciation can take on crucial importance, it stands to reason that individuals, consciously or unconsciously, should, among other things, seek or eschew identification with others through language. There are several theories developed to model the process of communication between two or more individuals. One of these is the Communication Accommodation Theory. This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval, frequently from powerless individuals. Communication Accommodation Theory focuses on the role of conversations in our lives. It has been incorporated in a number of different studies. For instance, accommodation has been studied in the mass media, with families, with Chinese students, with the elderly, on the job, in interviews, and even with messages left on telephone answering machines. There is no doubt that the theory is heuristic. The theory is expansive enough to be very complete, and it has been supported by research from diverse authors. In addition, the theory's core processes of convergence and divergence make it relatively easy to understand, underscoring the simplicity of the theory. The strengths of the theory may be quite significant because the theory has elicited little scholarly criticism. Still, a few shortcomings of the theory merit attention. Judee Burgoon, Leesa Dillman, and Lesa Stern (1993), for example, question the convergence-divergence frame advanced by Giles. They believe that conversations are too complex to be reduced simply to these processes. They also challenge the notion that people's accommodation can be explained by just these two practices. For instance, what occurs if people both converge and diverge in conversations' Are there consequences for the speaker' The listener' What influence-if any-does race or ethnicity play in this simultaneous process' One might also question whether the theory relies too heavily on a rational way of communicating. That is, although the theory acknowledges conflict between communicators, it also rests on a reasonable standard of conflict. Perhaps you have been in conflicts that are downright nasty and with people who have no sense of reason. It appears that the theory ignores this possible dark side of communication. Accommodation theory or "interpersonal accommodation theory" has sprung from the awareness that speakers are not merely "incumbents" (Runciman, 1998) of roles imposed on

Assess the different sources of the law in England and Wales. To what Essay - 7

Assess the different sources of the law in England and Wales. To what extent have external sources affected its development - Essay Example The public laws are used to enforce order among citizens and the state while private laws are used to enforce order between citizens and organization that fall in the private domain. These two laws are further broken down into civil law and criminal law (Goodchild, Embly & Slorach2013 P.34). As a sub branch of Public law , criminal law entails laws which define what is acceptable as appropriate conduct and a contravention of such laws is deemed an offence to not only the individuals affected but to the society as a whole. Civil laws fall within private laws and are used to solve disputes which arise in family matters in cases such as inheritance or domestic violence. They are also used in cases of probate and law as well as contracts, negligence and employment. Common law can be defined as legal precedent that is made by judges sitting in a court. Common law is constantly changing because the interpretation and knowledge of legal precedent and application of common sense as pertains to individual’s cases and available facts is bound to change (Antoine 2008, P.4) Common law can be traced back to three English crown courts of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries (Wingfield 2009, P7). These courts were the Common pleas, the King’s Bench and the Exchequer. It was assumed in those times that the custom of the people was the law as stipulated by the Kings’ courts. Even though the decisions were based on prior judicial pronouncements, in cases where there were statutes stipulated to govern particular disputes, judicial interpretation of those statutes were sought in order to evaluate how the law would apply in such case scenarios. Judges in the courts are tasked with creating the common laws by delivering written judgments about the cases before them. The Magistrate courts or other lesser courts are however not allowed to make their own precedent as this would lead to confusion in different regions of England and Wales (Antoine 2008,

When You Are Old Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

When You Are Old - Essay Example But famous Irish poet, William Butler Yeats (1865 – 1935) in his poem â€Å"When You are Old† remind us about a person who loved our soul and sorrows. Yeats succeeded in describing the pathetic conditions when somebody becomes old. He says that the dark hairs will be grayed; the youthful active energy will give way for tiredness or sleeping. He says that when you became old, your eyes will not work properly and hence you will not be able to read properly. He reminds us that the old age is all about our youthful and childhood sweet memories. He says that all the sweet memories at the childhood or youth period may be due to the physical attractiveness. Everybody cared or loved you because of your physical specialties Human being is considered to be made of body, mind and spirit. Body and mind believed to be finished by the death of a person while the soul is believed to be alive still. So the love and affection demonstrated towards body and mind will not last long. Most of the people love the happy side of one’s life. The happy side of life will mostly started to diminish once a person getting older and older and hence the love offered by others may also started to diminish. Such love can be termed as temporary. It is under these circumstances, the old person may have to think about a person who loved his soul and sorrows. The love demonstrated towards the soul is the everlasting one since the soul believed to be last forever and hence only that love can be termed as the real or true love. disappear. On the other hand a love shown towards the soul can be considered as the everlasting one since the soul believed to be exists for ever. The poet though his poem â€Å"When You Are Old† mentioned below compares two types of love; physical love and spiritual

Gastronomy And Food Within The Tourism Industry Tourism Essay

Gastronomy And Food Within The Tourism Industry Tourism Essay Over the time, the term of gastronomy was defined in many ways and it is constantly changing. There is wide range of definitions but it was initially used to describe sophisticated dishes prepared for the upper class. As Hjalager Richards (2002) show, a different version of the original definition of gastronomy in the early year, the concept is defined as a process of excellence which involve a reflecting eating, cooking and preparation as well as the general presentation and production. As it is generally agreed food is a vital component of our daily life. But as a tourism product, gastronomy is a distinctive experience which involves food and wine tasting of local food and wine productions (Buhalis and Costa, 2006). A tourist has to eat and somewhat participate in local food experiences; therefore, gastronomy has always been part of a tourist experience. In the recent years, the identification of tourism gastronomy has changed in term of the integration within the tourism industry and as a valued asset. Although, that tourists do not always take part of experiencing local food production due to a lack of interest which lay certain limit on tourism gastronomy experience, its represent a real benefit for some destinations. Tourism gastronomy still a new field of research but as a growing development product, it has opened a new special interest products such as wines routes, food fairs and short breaks. The main keys finding of researches on tourism gastronomy were encompassed in two English literature books, that is Tourism and gastronomy by Hjalager A.M. Richards G. (2002) and Food Tourism Around the world, Development, Management and Markets by Hall M.C. et al (2003). The perspective of food in tourism industry is widely disputed but mostly agreed that tourism product specialised on food experiences ameliorate the possibility of enhancing the destination marketing opportunities, the economic relation between agricultural production and tourism as well as traditional activities (Buhalis and Costa, 2006 Roberts and Hall, 2001). Moreover, studies have demonstrated that the gastronomy is the core of tourist experience and a source of identity for most of the post-industrial societies (Roberts Hall, 2001). Van Westering (1999) describes gastronomy has the key of many features of tourism experience and part of the culture which influence other aspects of culture. Furthermore, gastronomy plays a big role in tourism industry as well as cultural development and sustainability of a tourism heritage. The relation between them is a key motivator which influence tourist to travel. Although, the perception of gastronomy is defined as an identity of culture by many authors (Hjalager Corigliano, 2000) and connected to the tourists who use holiday as a way to discover the insight of different cultures. Corriea et al add that gastronomy is not only the central part of culture but an important element of a traditional portfolio of cultural products such as architecture and monuments. Indeed, gastronomy is ranked on the most important attributes of a destination. Due to the implication of gastronomy in decision making of tourist destination, it has become the attention of the marketing of tourist des tination as well as tourism policies (Kivela Crotts 2006 and Du Rand Heath 2006).The gastronomy is part of the culture, heritage and history of a country and those aspects influence the tourist choice to choose is future destination. Hall (2003) shows, that the traditional source of revenue in occurrence agriculture is not sufficient enough whereas food production and tourism are progressively becoming a possible and sustainable source of economy in rural areas. Boyne Hall (2002) cited in Hall (2003) emphasis the contribution of local community in occurrence businesses which have an important role for the sustainability of the development of food tourism within those areas. Wood (2001) cited in Hall et al (2003) further insists on the role of the food tourism which will benefit economically as well as strengthening local identity and community pride. The WTO (2004) describes the sustainability as values which are connected to tourism development in term of economic, socio-cultural a nd environmental aspects. The regions which adopted gastronomy as culture identity often associated to regional culture are part of sustainable development of tourism destinations. Scarpato (2000) cited in Hjalager Richards (2002) shows that the sustainability of gastronomy is the importance of producing environmentally sensitive food and preparing it with excellence in order to nourish the mind and body. In the book Tourism and Gastronomy by Hjalager Richards (2002), tree cases was critically evaluates by Scarpato and she determines that gastronomy researches could provide great influence on communities policies in order to improve sustainable development. This new form of tourism experience has taken shape during the last decades and emerged with the globalisation of foods products, also known as Macdonaldisation (Hall, 2003). Hall (2003) emphasizes that in the post-modern time gastronomy has been affected by the globalisation in term of blurring the boundary of the cultural and notional identity. In fact, the external food imports influence the local level of gastronomy (traditional cuisine). But Urry (1992) states by defending the post-modernism in term of tourist behaviour than tourists are aware that tourism is a series of games with multiple texts and no single, authentic tourist experience. And tourists allow most of the heritage products to avoid vanishing. Controversy, Cohen and Avieli (2004) stat, that local cuisine should be filtered in accordance to the tourism-oriented culinary establishments in order to become a popular attraction. Moreover, new cultural products are created in tourism cuisine, indeed the local cuisine an d foreign dishes are transformed and adapted to the tourist taste by tourism. However, the sustainability of tourism or responsible tourism is neglected if such processes are undertaken in tourism gastronomy. The authenticity of the food experience should be endorsed by the participation of hotels and restaurants by procurement of locally grown product and produce while respecting the protection of the environment. The degree of integration of gastronomy within the tourism industry could be ameliorate and fully accepted as a tourism and cultural resource as gastronomy contribute already to the sustainability of tourism. The implication of tourism organisation, local communities and producers could take a different approach and all stakeholders should cooperate in order to improve the implantation of sustainable tourism. More research in food and gastronomy tourism will help in the future to identify tourist profiles for each destination or specific region in order to conduct more targeted offers. Annotated Bibliography Buhalis, D., Costa, C. (2006): Tourism business frontiers; consumers, products and industry, Oxford, Elsevier LTD Correia, A.,et al (2008), The determinants of gastronomic tourists satisfaction: a second-order factor analysis 19: 3, 164 176 This article helps to understand the degree of importance of tourist satisfaction and how it affects in a destination. Du Rand, G.E., Heath, E. (2006): Towards a framework for food tourism as an element of destination marketing. Current Issues in Tourism 9:206 34. Hall, C.M., et al. (2003): Food Tourism Around the world, Development, Management and Markets. United Kingdom, Butterworth Heinemann Hjalager, A., Richards, G. (2002), Tourism and gastronomy, London/NewYork, Routedge Kivela, J., Crotts, J.C. (2006): Tourism and gastronomy: gastronomys influence on how tourists experience a destination. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research 30:35477. Roberts, L., Hall, D. (2001): Rural tourism and recreation; principle to practice, Wallingford (UK), CABI Publishing Urry, J., (2002): The Tourist Gaze. 2nd Edition, London, Sage Van Westering, J., (1999): Heritage and gastronomy: The pursuits of the new tourist, International Journal of Heritage Studies, 5: 2, 75 81 This article help to understand the relation between gastronomy and heritage and the key motivator which will push the tourist to choose a destination. Xore, A., et al (2006): Tourism quality agro-food products: an opportunity for the Spanish countryside 97: 2, 166 176 This article help to understand the relation between tourism gastronomy and agricultural production and traditional production.

Indifference to Anxiety in Cranes The Open Boat Essay example -- Open

Indifference to Anxiety in Crane's The Open Boat   Ã‚   In recent years, critical response to Stephen Crane's The Open Boat has shifted dramatically, focusing less on the tale's philosophical agendas than on its epistemological implications. The story no longer stands as merely a naturalistic depiction of nature's monumental indifference or as simply an existential affirmation of fife's absurdity. Instead, we have slowly come to realize a new level of the text, one that, according to Donna Gerstenberger, explores "man's limited capacities for knowing reality" (557). Gerstenberger's conclusion that the tale "may be best viewed as a story with an epistemological emphasis, one which constantly reminds its reader of the impossibility of man's knowing anything, even that which he experiences" (560), is further developed by Thomas L. Kent: If we insist that the text be interpreted naturalistically, if we insist, that the text must have some sort of overarching meaning --- even a meaning that shows the universe to be existentially absurd --- we place ourselves in the same boat as the deluded castaways [who "felt that, they could then be interpreters"]. On both the narrative and extra-textual levels, the subject of "The Open Boat" is epistemology, and the text suggests that meaning in the universe is secondary to man's ability to preceive [sic] it. (264)    Building upon the insights of Gerstenberger, Kent and others, l hope to show bow the structure of "The Open Boat" creates an epistemological dilemma, moving the reader from a position of epistemological indifference to a state of epistemological anxiety. Four key moments in the story create this shift from indifference to anxiety: first, in Section 1, the opening sentence... ...st way allowing us to know what it is they are now interpreters of, Crane highlights more than our own inability to achieve interpretation, to gain access to knowledge. Rather, he has placed us in such a position that we must shed our casual indifference to our epistemological failures and embrace, unwillingly perhaps, the anxiety that will attend all of our efforts to "read" life's impenetrable meanings.    WORKS CITED Crane, Stephen. "The Open Boat." The University of Virginia Edition of the Works of Stephen Crane: Volume V, Tales of Adventure. Ed. Fredson Bowers. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1970. Gerstenberger, Donna. "'The Open Boat': An Additional Perspective." Modern Fiction Studies 17 (1971-72):557-561. Kent, Thomas L "The Problem of Knowledge in'The Open Boat'and 'The Blu Hotel." American Literary Realism 14 (1981): 262-268.